The basics
This section deals with the elements that we need to consider before deeper investigation into the circular economy.
Before considering any CE activities, we mention the importance of responsible innovation.
Responsible research and innovation
Even though CE focuses on solving a key societal challenge, this does not mean that CE innovations might not lead to unintended negative consequences. An example might be the possibility of premature recycling of useable LIBs if companies need to meet quotas for recycled content.
The Met4Tech Centre used the UK Research and Innovation, Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council’s AREA framework (EPSRC, 20231) as basis to consider responsible research and innovation (RRI), including facilitating engagement among a diverse group of stakeholders to incorporate multiple perspectives into the roadmap. A Learning Histories workshop was carried out shortly after the start of the Centre to consider issues during rapid growth of technology metals, such as tantalum in capacitors for mobile phones (coltan, conflict minerals) and cobalt in LIBs (child labour) (Mahanty et al., 20252). Responsible behaviour applies to research and innovation too (Responsible Research and Innovation report, 20259).
During Met4Tech, the researchers were able to test the new UN Resource Management System principles (UNECE, 20223) to help ensure strong sustainable development from the use of natural mineral resources (Marquis et al., 20244). A UK International Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Resource Management in a Circular Economy is now set up with other UK colleagues and Defra to expand and continue this work (The United Kingdom International Centre of Excellence on Sustainable Resource Management in the Circular Economy5).
Materials flow analysis for lithium and cobalt in LIBs in the UK (Petavratzi et al.10) demonstrates that most materials arrive in the UK as batteries or EVs (blue and gold inward arrows). The EVs are then exported and used in the UK in similar amounts. Materials are exported for recycling. The step between (imported) raw materials and cell manufacturing is missing (Missing the midstream).
Data, stocks and flows
The development of circular economy opportunities and business models relies on robust data on material flows. Accurate data are crucial for quantifying materials entering the use phase and those exiting it, which then serve as feedstock for circular economy interventions.
Stocks and flows models can be designed at different levels to track:
- Products (e.g. LIBs)
- Constituent components (e.g. cathodes, anodes)
- Specific substances (e.g. lithium, cobalt)
Each modelling layer provides distinct information that are essential for industry, policymakers, and investors. For instance, a stocks and flows model for LIBs would offer quantitative data on the number and types of batteries reaching end-of-life. In contrast, a model for cobalt would trace its mass from initial consumption through to disposal and potential recovery. These insights are critical for developing effective circular economy strategies and investment decisions.
Table 1: Data sources used in Met4Tech
The Met4Tech Centre has established the UK Technology Metals Observatory at the British Geological Survey (BGS) to track primary (mined) and secondary (reused, recycled) technology metals. The platform provides insights into key products, metals, and material flows, particularly for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), and serves as a repository for relevant datasets (techmetalsobservatory.org). The observatory works closely with the Critical Minerals Intelligence Centre (CMIC) at BGS, collaborating on Foresight reports for critical technologies, including EV batteries (ukcmic.org/reports).
Terminology
A standard terminology for the CE is particularly helpful when it comes to formulation of regulations as well as for developing meaningful metrics to measure circular economy progress.
The terms ‘slowing the loop’, ‘narrowing the loop’ and ‘closing the loop’ are used by some authors (Bocken et al., 20166) to describe key desirable outcomes of CE actions. The reverse loops are often named by the ‘nine Rs’ (or more) – such as reduce, re-use, remanufacture, recycle (e.g. Potting et al., 20177), but these mean different things to different people. The Met4Tech researchers have been working on an accepted terminology for technology metals and the circular economy (Ahuja et al. 2025, in prep8).
1. EPSRC (2023) Framework for responsible research and innovation. https://www.ukri.org/who-we-are/epsrc/our-policies-and-standards/framework-for-responsible-innovation/ Accessed 2.2.2025.
2. Mahanty, S., Boons, F. and Harper, G. (2025) Evolving Critical Metal Systems: Hype Cycles and Implications for Sustainable Innovation (2025). Sustainability, 17, 2778.
3. UNECE (2022) United Nations Resource Management System Principles and Requirements, ECE Energy Series 74, ECE/ENERGY/144, United Nations, Geneva, 31 pp. https://unece.org/sustainable-energy/unfc-and-sustainable-resource-management/unrms
4. Marquis, E., Wall., F., Cudmore, N. and Hudson-Edwards, K. (2024) Optimizing Resource Management for Critical Raw Materials: A Case Study of the Application of UNRMS with Cornwall Regional Government, UK. ECE/ENERGY/GE.3/2024/6, Economic Commission for Europe, 25 pp.
5. https://unece.org/sustainable-energy/sustainable-resource-management/uk-ice-srm
6. Bocken, N.M.P., de Pauw, I., van der Grinten, B., Bakker, C. (2016) Product design and business model strategies for a circular economy. Journal of Industrial and Production Engineering, 32 (1), 67-81.
7. Potting, J., Hekkert, M. P., Worrell, E., & Hanemaaijer, A. (2017) Circular economy: measuring innovation in the product chain. Planbureau voor de Leefomgeving, (2544).
8. Ahuja, J, Lee, R, Petavratzi, E, Zils, M, Mohan TV, K., Marquis, E., Harper, G., Hsu, W.T. (2025, in draft) On Whose Terms? Developing circularity-focussed terminology to achieve circular value chains for technology metals.
9. Boons, F., Mahanty, S., Pettit, C., Wall, F., Hudson-Edwards, K. and Cavoski, A., (2025) Responsible Research and Innovation report.
10. Petavratzi et al., Results of lithium stocks and flows in the UK, Met4Tech thematic area 1.
Share this publication: